On the Nature of Ideas and Human Understanding Comparing Locke and Berkeley - Literature Essay Samples

The turn of the 17th century prompted a rolling new age of skepticism, in which individuals began to question unequivocal prior beliefs regarding the validity of the Catholic Church, and even the nature of reality. In response to an age echoing with voices of doubt, two primary schools of thought arose. On one hand, Rene Descartes’ Meditations pioneered the inception of rationalism, which arose in an attempt to establish reason and rationale as the most reliable source of knowledge. This school of thought aligned with the likes of Plato and emphasizes the existence of priori, or innate knowledge. On the contrary, John Locke argues against the rationalist focus on innate ideas; claiming instead that it is our senses and experiences that provide us with the most reliable basis for knowledge. Locke does this through his work, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, a series of arguments wherein he attempts to ascertain the origin and nature of abstract ideas by outlining the pro cesses by which we understand ideas and reality. As with many philosophers, various criticisms arose regarding Locke’s explanation of ideas and the nature of reality. Among these critics, Berkeley, another empiricist, uses Locke’s own principles to support his own, nominalist account of ideas. Although both interpretations are by no means without fault, an analysis of both Locke and Berkeley’s explanation of ideas offers thought-provoking insight into the nature of ideas and how we perceive reality. At first, the prevailing explanation to all the doubt incurred from skepticism was the rationalist view. Spearheaded by Descartes, rationalism assumed that God endowed human beings with certain innate ideas, such as morality or the nature of God. However, Locke rejects this belief for an alternative viewpoint: that all human beings are born as â€Å"tabula rasa† or blank slates. Rather than depend on the existence of innate ideas, Locke reasons that it is very probable for human beings to â€Å"attain to all the knowledge [we] have, without the help of any innate impressions; and arrive at certainty, without any such original notions or principles† (MP, p. 319). In doing so, he denies the need for any supernatural endowment of innate ideas, a rather bold assertion at the time. However, Locke acknowledges the need for further explanation. After all, if we none of our ideas are innate â€Å"how does [the mind] come to be furnished? From where does it have all the materia ls of reason and knowledge?† (MP, p. 323). In response, Locke answers his own question and sheds light on his primary assertion: that we gain all of our ideas from experience. Thus, Locke begins his essay by boldly arguing that we are born knowing nothing and instead, obtain information from our experiences. Furthermore, Locke elaborates on what it means for us to derive all ideas from experience. Specifically, he breaks down the â€Å"fountains of knowledge† into two key areas: sensation and reflection (MP, p. 323). The first fountain refers to when our senses â€Å"convey into the mind several distinct perceptions of things, according to those various ways in which those objects affect them† (MP, p. 323). In other words, sensation occurs when the mind experiences the external world through the five senses. The second fountain, reflection, refers to the â€Å"perception of the operations of our own mind within us, as it is employed about the ideas it has gotten† (MP, p. 323). This process refers to when the mind points towards itself and begins to reflect upon its own functions as in the case of believing, thinking, and doubting. Through these fountains, Locke establishes the two primary ways by which the human mind is able to obtain all ideas and knowledge, without the necessity of any innate ideas. After establishing the methods by which we obtain ideas, Locke attempts to apply them to his original argument: that even abstract ideas such as mathematics or a circle can be explained through empiricism. To begin, Locke points to the fact that everything in the world is a â€Å"particular† thing or idea (MP, p. 377). As such, it would make logical sense for a reader to assume that each particular object in the world has a corresponding particular term that can be represented by language. However, Locke instead goes on to state that, on the contrary, â€Å"universality does not belong to things themselves, which are all of them particular in their existence, even those words and ideas which in their signification are general† (MP, p. 379). Hence, Locke asserts that despite the fact that everything in this world is composed of particulars, the majority of language is comprised of general terms. Although this may seem counterintuitive, Locke goes on to explain the reasoning behind this dichotomy. Locke begins his explanation by asserting the importance of general terms as â€Å"it is beyond the power of human capacity to frame and retain distinct ideas of all the particular things we meet with† (MP, p. 377). In other words, the ability for every single particular in this world to have a corresponding particular term is simply out of the human capability. This however, begs a new question: how are we then able to create general terms, if all things are particulars? In response, Locke introduces the concept of abstraction, a subset of reflection, as a method of creating general terms: â€Å"Of the complex ideas signified by the names man and horse, leaving out but those particulars in which they differ, and retaining only those in which they agree, and of those making a new distinct complex idea, and giving the name animal to it, one has a more general term that comprehends with man several other creatures,† (MP, 378). In other words, abstraction is the process by which particular items are grouped together and stripped away of their differences, leaving a group of things only defined by their similarities. It is this very process that allows us to label these groups of abstract ideas under a common term—in this case general terms (MP, p. 377). Thus, Locke comes full circle to reject the Cartesian view that abstract general ideas such as mathematics or the concept of a color must be endowed by God as innate ideas. Interestingly, one area where Locke may have agreed with Descartes lies in the potential of our senses, and therefore experiences, to mislead us. This is apparent in the case of delusions or hallucinations, where our sensations may not present us with an accurate representation or understanding of reality. However, rather than throw out all sensory perception as Descartes does through Cartesian doubt, Locke draws a distinction between the â€Å"primary qualities† and â€Å"secondary qualities† of all objects. He asserts, that primary qualities are attributes that are often â€Å"discovered in our senses, and are in [objects] even when we do not perceive them—such are bulk, figure, number, situation, and motion† (MP, p. 362). In comparison, secondary qualities are â€Å"nothing but the power those substances have to produce several ideas in us by our senses (MP, p. 362) This can be illustrated in the analogy of an apple, where its primary qualities are rep resented by its objective features such as its density, weight or height, and its secondary qualities are represented in things based on our perception of the apple such as its color or taste. Thus, the main difference in primary and secondary qualities is seen in the fact that primary qualities are part of the objective reality of the apple, whereas the secondary qualities are based off of our subjective perception of it. In response to Locke’s theory of mind, one might question the process of abstraction. For instance, it is clear that Locke views abstraction as not only a part, but more importantly, an inherent necessity for communication and human interaction among individuals. This is seen in Locke’s assertion that without abstraction and the ability to create general terms, â€Å"men would in vain heap up names of particular things that would not serve them to communicate their thought† (MP, p. 377). However, is it not possible for various individuals to perceive and therefore abstract things differently? For instance, there are clear cognitive differences that vary among different individuals. Thus, a potential issue to Locke’s idea of abstraction could be in the possibility that people could abstract in vastly different ways, causing confusion between the use of general terms. Similarly, George Berkeley also argues against Locke’s theory of mind and ideas, albeit through a separate line of reasoning. More specifically, Berkeley attacks the concept of primary and secondary qualities in an attempt to argue against Locke’s theory of abstraction, which he describes to be â€Å"an opinion so remote from common sense as that seems to be† (MP, p. 441). Instead, Berkeley questions the ability for us to make clear distinctions between primary and secondary qualities. Berkeley does this by using an analogy of our ability to distinguish men: â€Å"†¦the idea of man that I frame of myself must be either of a white or a black or a tawny, a straight or a crooked, a tall or a short or a middle-sized man. I cannot by any effort of thought conceive the abstract idea above described. And it is equally impossible for me to form the abstract idea of motion distinct from the body moving† (MP, p. 441). In other words, Berkeley shows that it is impossible for us to distinguish the primary from the secondary qualities without presupposing acknowledgment of one or the other. After all, an attempt to imagine any given object with only its primary qualities would be impossible as they are shown to be inextricably linked to the secondary qualities. This is seen in the example of the color red. In an attempt to use abstraction, one might say it is possible to simply take the similarity of the color red, and subtract the different objects of that color. The issue, however, lies in the question of where one must stop with the â€Å"subtractions,† for there are also different shades of red. Even before that, and in order to know that the abstraction has come to an end, one presupposes the acknowledgement of red before the term exists. Thus, Berkeley’s main argument lies in the circularity of abstraction and its inability to fully explain the difference between primary and secon dary qualities and the origin of general terms. A true skeptic, Berkeley continues his method of criticism in pursuit of potential implications. After dismantling the distinction between primary and secondary qualities, Berkeley goes on to suggest that because the two are inextricably linked, neither primary nor secondary qualities (if there even should be a distinction between them) materially exist. Berkeley portrays this startling conclusion with a twist to Descartes famous Cogito: â€Å"Esse Est Percipi† or â€Å"to be is to be perceived† (Routledge, p. 27). Through this, Berkeley asserts that there are no real material things in the world, but rather perceiving minds (which themselves do not have physical form). This seemingly drastic view is the primary reason why Berkeley is called a nominalist and reflects the view that things in the world simply exist in name, but not in any objective, material reality. Thus, Berkeley’s version of the worlds centers around a subjective reality where everything exists simply as a perception to a perceiving mind, rather than as an independent objective reality. Expectedly, there have been various critiques of the quite drastic nominalist explanation of abstract ideas. For instance, if the only thing that exists in the world are the perceiving minds around us, then these minds must also be perceived in order to exist. However, surely the mind or even spirit cannot be perceived, at least in the way objects around us are perceived. Thus, there is an issue regarding the origin of these perceiving minds and the potential presuppositions involved in their assumed existence. Furthermore, there lies another more obvious issue. If something must be perceived in order to exist, does that not imply that in the case of a lone, sleeping man, that he simply does not exist until he is seen in the morning? In other words, the fact that any object’s existence must constantly rely on being perceived in order to exist causes all things to be in a perpetual state of chaos. A whirlwind of doubt and ambiguity, these are yet only a few of the issues that s urround Berkeley’s nominalist explanation of ideas. In response to these questions, Berkeley has a seemingly straightforward answer: God. In order to establish a foundation for stable existence and eliminate many of the problems associated with an utterly subjective reality, Berkeley points to God as the ultimate perceiver (MP, p. 421). As a result, God in his â€Å"infinite perfection† as the â€Å"Creator† enables there to be a balance where minds are able to exist without being perpetually perceived by each other (MP, p. 420). Of course, this assertion does then require a further explanation behind the existence of God. However, it is interesting to see how Berkeley uses an objective, omniscient God to provide the basis for a subjective reality. The path to explaining the nature of ideas is just as convoluted as it is interesting. On one hand, there is the rationalist argument that advocates the existence of innate ideas. On the other, Locke spearheads an explanation that relies on the human experience as the sole cause of ideas. In the years to follow, many empiricists portrayed their own insights into the nature of abstract ideas. In particular, Berkeley uses many of Locke’s own philosophical tools in order to deconstruct the process of abstraction, a path which leads him to assume that there is no such thing as objective reality, and only a subjective reality. Although, the amazingly wide scope of these investigations can be at once confusing, it is interesting to observe the connection between the nature of our ideas and the world around us. The analysis of Descartes all the way to Locke and Berkeley, only proves as a testament to the importance of the mind and the ever-increasing mystery of the reality in which w e live. Works Cited Watkins, Eric, and Roger Ariew. Modern Philosophy an Anthology of Primary Sources. Hackett Publishing Co, Inc, 2009. Fogelin, Robert. Routledge Philosophy GuideBook to Berkeley and the Principles of Human Knowledge. Routledge, 7 June 2001.

Charter Of Rights And Freedoms - 1345 Words

Charter of Rights and Freedoms The Canadian constitution is the foundation that forms and brings together our nation government and its legal system. You can also consider the constitution as a rulebook. It contains rules and regulations that political parties must follow in order to adopt, amend, or revoke a law. The constitution has three main sources. In 1867 the British North American Act passed, which was the first source of the constitution. A change was made to the BNA act and was patriated in 1982. It was then officially called the Constitution Act 1867. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms were included in the amendments that were added to the Constitution in 1982. The act was renamed Constitution Act 1982. The second source is the unwritten set of rules and conventions, which is crucial in Canadian law. These rules usually are developed and later on used by important politicians and government officials. The last source of the constitution is the court rulings and decisions. When there are dispute s or conflicts to solve, the courts are called upon to resolve them. The charter of rights and freedoms is known as the most important piece of paperwork to any living Canadian. (Alexandraowicz 104). It is made up of 34 sections and 9 subsections. The most significant subtopics in the charter are our fundamental freedoms, legal and equality rights. These rights allow us to speak and do as we will under a reasonable limit, protect us under the law, treat us fairly,Show MoreRelatedThe Charter Of Rights And Freedoms1627 Words   |  7 PagesThe Charter of Rights and Freedoms entrenched under the CA 1982 act in the Canadian constitution is seen as a decisive indicator of national identity by the majority of Canadians. The charter’s role in Canadian society ranges from providing individuals with intrinsic human rights such as freedom of expression, freedom of belief and acts particularly as a concrete limit on ‘tyranny of the majority’, advocating and enforcing basic rights of individuals and minorities. It is however worthy to note thatRead MoreThe Charter Of Rights And Freedoms1205 Words   |  5 PagesThe Charter of Rights and Freedoms is part of the Constitution and it was added to the Constitution in 1982. The Constitution has many laws about the essential guidelines one must follow in our country. It also governs how the government/ organizations should treat their citizens. The Charter allows the citizens and newcomers to feel like they are appreciated and also safe. However, there are situations where the Charter cannot protect you. 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Many citizens in Quebec even wanted to separate themselves from Canada and form their own nation. Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau decided that the new charter in order to ensure the rights of people residing in Quebec. In order to do this Trudeau had to create an amending formula for theRead MoreThe Charter Of Rights And Freedoms1934 Words   |  8 PagesThe Charter of Rights and Freedoms is part of Canada’s written constitution called the Constitution Act in 1982 it was the second main aspect of the Act and it guaranteed fundamental, democratic, legal, egalitarian, and linguistic rights and freedoms against government intrusion, it imposed f ormal new limitations on the governments in interaction with its citizens. 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Many view it as a feature that disregards the fundamental right to democracy, an integral part of Canada’s political system. A functioning democracy is an important factor in providing citizens with the utmost rights and freedoms deserved. Society’s full potential is not being achieved if there are individuals who believe their principle of democracyRead MoreThe Charter Of Rights And Freedoms1596 Words   |  7 PagesPrime Minister Pierre Trudeau was establishing the renowned Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Since the three decades of being established, the Charter of Rights and Freedoms has protected the individual rights and freedoms of thousands of Canadians. The Charter of Rights and Freedoms has become a part of the national identity and has become a big patriotic symbol for the country. The Charter of Rights and Freedoms is the document the truly separates Canada from all the other powerful nations and isRead MoreThe Charter Of Rights And Freedom2222 Words   |  9 Pagesthe Charter of Rights Freedoms a mistake? It is believed that the Charter s creation was a significant benefit as it guarantees certain political rights to Canadian citizens and civil rights of everyone in Canada from the policies and actions of all areas and levels of government. However, many believe the Charter makes Canada more like the United States, especially by serving corporate rights and individual rights rather than group rights and social rights. Also, there are several rights thatRead MoreThe Charter Of Rights And Freedom2268 Words   |  10 PagesThe Charter of Rights and Freedom and its Effect on Canada Prabhjot Banipal 10 Dec 2014 Topic 4 University of the Fraser Valley The Charter of Rights and Freedoms is a bill of rights granted constitutional status that was introduced in the Constitution Act of 1982 by Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau. The Constitution Act is also known as the repatriation of the Canadian Constitution. The Charter had several purposes; the first is â€Å"to outline and guarantee the political rights of Canadian

My Mother, If She Had Won Free Dance Lessons And The Cab...

Many stereotypes that address different types of people exist today. Stereotypes are popular, fixed, and oversimplified ideas that are typically associated with particular demographics. These ideas can be viewed negatively or positively. Stereotypes may foster or perpetuate misconceptions about some demographics. In the poems, â€Å"My Mother, If She Had Won Free Dance Lessons† and â€Å"The Cab Driver Who Ripped Me Off,† both written by Cornelius Eady, contain characters who are susceptible to misconceptions and prejudices due to their personal experiences. In â€Å"My Mother, If She Had Won Free Dance Lessons,† the speaker discusses his mother s condition and how their lives could have been different if she had become a dancer. Unfortunately, she was unable to pursue that career. Now, she spends her day doing absolutely nothing ( Line 8). This is one of the reasons why he refers to her as the neighborhood crazy lady ( Line 6). Seeing his mother in this state ca uses the speaker to wonder what life would be like if she was given the opportunity to dance in stanzas 3-6 ( Lines 20-40). In another poem, written by Eady titled, â€Å"The Cab Driver Who Ripped Me Off,† the speaker tells the listener about an encounter with a cab driver with prejudice. The cab driver was criticizing people who make money through unconventional means such as scamming. Meanwhile, the cab driver was also scamming the speaker by taking a round-a-bound way which increases the fare. In both of the texts, theShow MoreRelatedAutobilography of Zlatan Ibrahimovic116934 Words   |  468 Pagesdedicated to my family and friends, to those who have stood by my side, on good days and bad. I also want to dedicate it to all the kids out there, those who feel different and don t fit in. Those who are seen for the wrong reasons. It s OK to be different. Continue being yourself. It worked out for me. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- CHAPTER 1 Pep Guardiola, the coach in Barcelona, with his grey suits and troubled face, came up to me looking Read MoreProject Managment Case Studies214937 Words   |  860 PagesSTUDIES, SECOND EDITION - PROJECT MANAGEMENT CASE STUDIES, SECOND EDITION HAROLD KERZNER, Ph.D. Division of Business Administration Baldwin-Wallace College Berea, Ohio John Wiley Sons, Inc. This book is printed on acid-free paper. @ Copyright O 2006 by John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmittedRead MoreManaging Information Technology (7th Edition)239873 Words   |  960 PagesChapter 12 Planning Information Systems Resources 519 Benefits of Information Resources Planning 519 Creating a Context for IS Resource Decisions Aligning IS and Business Goals 520 520 517 xi xii Contents Balancing the Trade-offs Between Standardization and Agility Obtaining IT Capital Investment Approvals 520 The Information Resources Planning Process 520 Assessing The Current Information Resources 521 Measuring IS Use and Attitudes 521 Reviewing the IS Organizational

Solve Management Issues By United Airlines Team †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Solve Management Issues By United Airlines Team. Answer: Introduction In this article that has been selected, the main area of focus is how the main management team of the United Airlines was able to solve one of the biggest management issues that it faced in the recent times. It gives a brief review of the problem that the company faced and the strategies that the company and its CEO Oscar Munoz to reach a winning solution that will be helpful in solving the major issues that the company faced. A lot of it was because of the extremely impressive leadership qualities of Oscar that led a team of hundreds of laborers to get the desired result. It shows that if the leadership is in the right hands than no problem is big enough that it cannot be solved(Schlege, et al., 2017). Analysis The given company faced a lot of issues with its labor force, having the numbers in hundreds and the management was very poor. That led to a lot of complications. Even after having the best assets in the business, the company was not able to tap its full potential because of the ongoing network issues. The downfall that the company faced because of the mergers that it entered into 2010, led to an aftermath in its labor policies. This led to a loophole in the labor element that was present in the company. To solve the same the management understood that the airline company is a people business and in case they fail to engage in their own employees, they wont be able to excel. So they started looking for options by which they can solve these issues. They started with revamping of the labor deals, some were very expensive for the company, some were easy to crack, and some had a lot of complications involved(Baal, et al., 2016). The CEO held an approach that all the investment that the c ompany is making in these labor deals can be treated either as a cost or they can consider the same as a future investment that will help the company to excel in the times to come. The CEO believed in that cracking or ratifying the labor deals was not the sole solution to the problem, what was needed was that the ground level workers must be approached. He himself approached them to understand their demands, their needs and what the company can do in the long run to retain these employees when the competition in the airline sector was so fierce. With the solving of the labor issues, the other issues that the company faced were related to the high fuel costs and the labor incentives that the airline had to provide. To solve the same, the airline induced in certain cost cutting methods that will help in reducing the overall cost and also opted for higher operational efficiencies. The overall fare structure of the customers were also changed and a lot of specifications were involved so that no unreasonable fare is charged neither free services were provided to the customers. All the different cost centers in the company were managed to reduce the cost as much as possible. Along with focus on the international sector, the company tried to maximize revenue from the domestic flights as well. It also opted for development of better network transaction between the various flights that were operated so that eventually the company will be able to tap in both the domestic and international market. As stated in the article because of the efforts undertaken by the management the overall capital expenditure was reduced by $1.6billion for 2016 and 2017. This has led to increase in the overall profit for the company and had also provided a base that will help the future development(Dichev, 2017). Conclusion The CEO and the management team have been able to get a winning solution for one of the major cost management issue that the company was facing. The potential opportunity that the company was able to tap in was the availability of cheap labor by entering into agreements. The major potential weakness or threats that can be identified from the system is the presence of fierce competition that is always ready to tap in the optimum resources and the weakness may be in the co operation of the management team. However the biggest point to be taken back is that if the leader is fierce enough to take the responsibility on his own shoulders, the company was always progress. A good team only works when they have a good leader to support them and guide them(Maynard, 2016). Refrences Baal, P., Meltzer, D. Brouwer, W., 2016. Future Costs, Fixed Healthcare Budgets, and the Decision Rules of Cost-Effectiveness Analysis. HEALTH ECONOMICS, 25(2), pp. 237-248. Dichev, I., 2017. On the conceptual foundations of financial reporting.Accounting and Business Research, 47(6), pp. 617-632. Maynard, J., 2016. Financial Accounting, Reporting, and Analysis. U.K: Oxford University Press. Schlege, D., Frank, F. Britzelmaie, B., 2017. Investment decisions and capital budgeting practices in German manufacturing companies. International Journal of Business and Globalisation, 16(1).